Critically evaluate Pinkers claim that music is auditory...

Critically evaluate Pinker s claim that music is auditory cheesecake: Pinker’s metaphorical expression for music was â€Å"auditory cheesecake†, explaining that he considered this function â€Å"useless[as a biological adaptation]† (Pinker 1997, p.528). Perhaps avid listeners comfort feed their minds with acoustic cheesecake, but musical knowledge presents the impact of such sweetness goes far beyond just licking the spoon. Extracting Pinker’s perspective, this essay will discuss whether music is valuable in the survival of humans. Arguments will be derived from brain imaging findings to examine its biological predisposition, adaptionist view to seek out its evolutionary status and whether the environment is responsible for demoting music.†¦show more content†¦This is because Music is a high cortical function, thus maintenance is costly. Transmitting this energy required for immediate survival needs should have reduced the function of music in future generations of such populations. As a result, it would be expected that music is culture specific, yet on the contrary, it is enjoyed universally. Therefore music attains the status of necessity. Zahavi’s (1975, in Miller 2000)Handicap theory conceptualizes the purpose of music. The theory stresses that sexual traits usually posses a risk to survival.; suggesting music is a biological adaption for the purpose of Sexual selection(Darwin, 1871, in Patel 2010). Miller (2000) interprets Music as an aesthetic display and indicator for fitness. Musical activities such as â€Å"dancing† represents health, â€Å"voice control...self confidence for status†, â€Å"Rhythmic† engagement shows ability to identify patterns and â€Å"melodic creativity† which assists initiation for social communication(Miller 2000, p.10). This handicapping, sexual trait may be useful for reproductive success but attempting to gain excessive aesthetic display can lead to dire consequences. Jimi Hendrix, famous guitarist, died at 27 years from drug overdose which he used to â€Å"spark his musical imagination† (Miller, 2000, p.2). Hendrix’s fatal actions can be explained by the neural overlap between effects of drug and music, making music a possible threat to survival(Blood and

Creation of New Markets by Diversity Free Essays

From the beginning of this world we have seen or to put it more correctly heard of God creation of this world. This demonstrates the immense power of imagination possessed by God. His imagination is unequal to anything we can think of and he has managed and maintained everything up to this day. We will write a custom essay sample on Creation of New Markets by Diversity or any similar topic only for you Order Now We are all given a small amount of this God given creative power. Some of us just happened to never see pass our limitations and allow our imagination power to grow freely. Persons that have good imagination or creative ideas are needed in today†s business world of fast changing demands and supply. Business calls for managers and employees with quick minds that know how to solves problems quickly and their imagination are not limited. Being creative provides numerous benefits for companies and that the management level it should be replicated down to the levels of employees level. What precisely is creativity, one might ask? Basically it is that processes of generating new ideas. It does not matter what that idea might be once it is a bit different from what was their already it†s a creative idea. Sometimes creativity is confused with innovation, which is about planning and implementing ideas. By being creative with in companies and businesses the amount of benefits increases. Not being creative set back companies to the classic school of management, which does not produce much growth for cutting edge businesses that wish to excel. Creation of new markets by diversity is a benefit that creativity brings about. As it can be seen in 3M case on page 35 of the Management organization textbook. This small mining company 3M (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company) was nearly bankrupt but due to the quick reaction by management things were quickly turned around from heading down hill. Seeing that thing were failing in the mining venture they made a key decision to turn from that and focus on the mine†s output- abrasive grit. This carried them off into focusing on sandpaper and grinding wheels. These areas were also somewhat difficult. Over time the company continued to experiment with a Varity of products ideas. Many of there ideas came from its employees and customers. In this we can see that they implemented more recent schools of management theories such as behavioral, system, and contingency. Management listened to its employees and customers. Which does not happen in the classical school. New ideas helped this saved this company but most importantly of all was that willingness to accept and implement these ideas by management. With creativity skills business are able to use or see new ways of satisfying their customers needs. Managers should know that the survival and profitability of their organization are directly linked to meeting or exceeding customers needs and expectations. They satisfy customers by guaranteeing that all individual efforts and their results posses guilty. This can be demonstrated in the automotive industry. From the early ages of this automotive industry it can be seen that different ideas in creative design have lead to some of the most successful automotive companies. Toyota by using new fuel-efficient technology produces cares that run longer distances with the same amount of fuel. This attracts customers because they can use the some amount of fuel and increase mileage of their travel. Hereby we see that the ultimate goal is achieved increased revenue by the creative power of new idea and innovation in technology. Increased revenue is usually the goal of many business companies and by implementing new ideas and new and more efficient way of carrying on business organizations can move forward. In the 21st century without managers and employees who do not think that they are creative need to really â€Å"check if they still want to have jobs†. As given in the hand out there are basically 3 saying which limit persons thinking they are 1. I†m not creative. 2. I don†t know how to be creative. 3. It†s not ok to e creative around there. We need to overcome these limits and release our minds from these mental blocks. The creative powers are instilled in each of us as children but because of lack of use or prohibition of use. Some of use grow up thinking so logical (lift side brain thinking) that we need to practice to be creative. The (right side brain thinking) the creative side need to be use along side the left side to create the most fantastic results. It is the managers position to instill and encourage creativity at all levels of management. First line or operating management level will have to be more creative than that top and middle management. This is because they are the supervisor team leaders. Who over see the work of non-management people. Organizations or businesses can do a wide Varity of thing to increase creativity. The simple structured techniques like brain storming and mind mapping are good places to start. Some other methods used to access creative potentials are storytelling, dance, mask work, visualization, poetry, painting, sculpting and metaphor. It is also important to note that some methods will work will with certain organizations and others will not. Creativity as seen is an essential core requirement to the survival in the business world. More and more person and organizations are realizing this and taping into this natural skill and reaping the benefits. Therefore as student†s teachers, workers and managers we should all encourage and promote these creative powers. How to cite Creation of New Markets by Diversity, Essay examples

Comparative On The Lord Essay Example For Students

Comparative On The Lord Essay Comparitive Essay on the Lord of the Rings and the HobbitA fantasy is an imaginary world where all things imaginable can be brought to life. J.R.R Tolkien portrayed fantasy through his use of skilled craftsmanship and a vivid imagination, which was presented in each piece of literature he wrote. In Tolkiens two stories The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings we see the theme of fantasy brought to life through three essential elements, heroism, magic and retribution. Heroism is shown through the characters courage and bravery in situations where conflict arises and this enables them to be seen in a new light. Magic is a form of extraordinary power seemingly through a supernatural force; it is used in a combination of combat and mystical items to aid the companions on their journey. Retribution is paid to the evil forces for the wrongs society had to endure while they were allowed to dominate. This system allows opportunity for physical and mental development in the characters and the asp ect of fantasy to come to life. During the characters quest, weather they were headed to the Lonely Mountains or to the Cracks of Doom, they always experienced a form of heroism. In the story The Hobbit, we see heroic deeds being accomplished by the main character Bilbo. This occurs when the companions do battle with giant venomous spiders in Mirkwood forest. Bilbo finds depth and strength in his nature that he was surprised was there and smote these villainous creatures all on his own, saving his friends and adding to his stature among those in the group. Somehow the killing of the giant spider, all alone by himself in the dark without the help of the wizard or the Dwarves or anyone else, made a great difference to Mr. Baggins. (144) There are numerous other opportunities to experience heroism in The Hobbit, one of which is near the conclusion of the tale when the brave and noble Bard kills the sinister dragon Smaug. As a child this character encountered Smaug for the first time while fleeing the ruination of thei r city; now even though Bard was overcome with the fear that every mortal has when they are near one of these tremendous beasts, he was determined to stand his ground due to the love he had for their small town. He was able to accomplish this impossible task because a small thrush perched on his shoulder and told him of the one weak spot of the dragon, the hollow of its left breast. Bard then inflicted death upon the terrible Smaug with his last arrow and was nearly killed himself by the tremendous weight of the beast in the process, but he jumped out of the way and into the water just in the nick of time. With a shriek that deafened man, felled trees and split stone, Smaug shot spouting into the air, turned over and crashed down from high in ruin. (229)A character that displays the traits of heroism is one who overcomes the odds through the use of unique and valuable qualities; this remains just as true in The Lord of the Rings as it does in The Hobbit. One truly heroic act occurre d when Gandalf the Great, determined to defend the fellowship took on a Balrog, this huge, bat-like source of evil stood on the bridge to freedom and did battle with the poor mage. Gandalf, stricken with fear caused the bridge to collapse and with it fell the Balrog. However, with one last effort the beast threw one final lash with his whip catching Gandalf and dragged him into the abyss where they would do battle. With a terrible cry the Balrog fell forward, and its shadow plunged down and vanished. But even as it fell it swung its whip, and the thongs lashed and curled about the wizards knees, dragging him to the brink. (430) Another portrayal of heroism in The Lord of the Rings takes place when Sam, a quiet but honorable hobbit, conquered the dark and grotesque horned spider, Shelob. His master Frodo was in immense peril and in a desperate attempt to save him Sam savagely attacked her until she was forced off his dear friend. His fury knew no limits to his power and he forced the monster to go running for shelter exhausted from the encounter. And Shelob cowed at last, shrunken in defeat, jerked and quivered as she tried to hasten from him. (426) This concept provides the fundamental needs of a fantasy world and shows the growth of each character and the development of their role in the story. Shakespearean Comedies: Comparisions and Contrasts EssayAll through the characters journeys in Middle-earth we see the elements of fantasy play a major role, not only in the development of the plot but also in the growth in the characters. Acts of heroism build the structure of the book, creating suspense and intrigue, this hooks the readers to the plot forcing them to continue to read till stories end. Magic is essential to the storyline, without it the characters would be perceived as immortal, it adds flavor and a sense of danger to the novel. This extinguishes the immortal image and allows opportunity for the writers creative skill to be exposed. Every fantasy requires retribution in order to depict to the reader the moral that evil is wrong. It also allows the people of the story to be ensured that their hardships dont go unnoticed and to be content in knowing that punishment was induced upon their oppressors. Through this system the author allows the reader to fully understan d the characters, as well as the major changes both physically and mentally which allow the characters to successfully complete their task to dominate over the forces of evil.

Security Recommendations for Accounts and Passwords

Introduction Security is a very important issue in computer systems and most organizations dedicate significant resources in securing their systems.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Security Recommendations for Accounts and Passwords specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Easttom (2006) observes that protecting the system’s perimeters from external attacks and installing antivirus software and anti-spyware does not complete the securing efforts. Proper configuration of the machines is necessary for the network to be considered secure. Knowledge on how to secure accounts and make adequate use of passwords is therefore very important for computer users and administrators. Easttom (2006) provides recommendations on accounts and passwords from the NSA, Microsoft, and himself. This paper will discuss other recommendations on accounts and passwords and discuss them with particular emphasis being given to areas in which they differ from recommendations offered by Easttom. Analysis of Recommendations Prevention of unauthorized access is a core goal of computer security. The primary means used by many intruders to access the system is by trying the default settings. Strebe (2004) recommends that the default user account settings should always be reconfigured since they provide an easy starting point for potential intruders who wish to gain access to the network. Most default settings are not configured to offer optimal security and changing them will increase the security level of the system.Advertising Looking for assessment on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The visibility of the available user accounts should be hidden. By making use of the â€Å"Name and Password† option as opposed to the â€Å"List of users† option for the login window improves the security of the system. This is because without a visible list of us ers, an intruder will have a harder time hacking into the computer since they have to guess not only the password but also the name of the user. Another recommendation is that the password hint feature should be disabled. While this feature might be helpful for the legitimate user who has forgotten their password, it will also make it easier for an intruder to guess the password and then gain access into the system. SANS (2012) observes that a password hint like â€Å"my family name† will easily help an intruder to break into the account. Even if best practices are followed when opening new accounts, the system can be compromised if the account becomes inactive when the employee leaves the organization. A malicious former employee whose account is still active can compromise the system from outside since the system still recognizes him/her as a legitimate user. SANS (2012) recommends that an audit of all accounts in the system should be done regularly and all inactive account s dealt with. Tracking account will be integral to the security of the system since it will enable the administrator to promptly identify dormant accounts and remove them from the system. User accounts which have not been utilized for a set period of time should be disabled. While an account is disabled, all the files associated with it should be moved to a secure location to prevent any intruder from accessing them. Monitoring of attempted access to deactivated accounts can help the administrator to identify hacking attempts.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Security Recommendations for Accounts and Passwords specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Account lockout policies are important since they prevent a user from making an infinite number of wrong login attempts. Easttom (2006) recommends a number of account lockout durations, which include 3 hours for the account lockout threshold and 48 hours if someone atte mpts to crack the password during weekends. After the lockout time has expired, the account is automatically unlocked. The CERT (2012) recommends that automatic unlocks after the specified lockout duration should not be used. Instead, the security professionals must manually review the case and then proceed to unlock it after the investigation is complete. By conducting a manual review, the administrator will be able to identify anomalous activity and take appropriate action against it. If the account is unlocked automatically, the unsuccessful intruder might continue with the attempts and eventually break into the account. Users who make use of their work accounts outside the office might have remote access to their account. Remote access increases the risk that the individual will log in from a public computer therefore exposing their login credentials to others. The CERT (2012) recommends that remote access should be restricted and specific IP addresses should be used if it is po ssible. If this is not possible, then concurrent logins should be guarded against and users should only be able to have one active session at any time. Any concurrent login attempt should be flagged down by the security personnel and a review of the login attempts done to help track attempted hackings.Advertising Looking for assessment on it? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Easttom (2006) recommends restricting administrator rights to only the users who need such privileges on a regular basis. This notion is supported by SANS (2012) who asserts that uncontrolled administrative privileges might be used to perpetrate attacks against the system. The CERT (2012) confirms that a hacker who gains access to an account which has administrative privileges can do just about anything on the compromised machine. Having administrative privileges loosely and widely distributed therefore increases the risks to the system from outside attacks since intruders can access more resources once they compromise an account with administrative privileges. Administrators normally create accounts for all the users and assign them with a generic password such as â€Å"password†. Walshaw (2000) states that once an account has been created, the users should be forced to change password during the next logon. By implementing such a practice, the scenario where a community of users have the same password will be avoided and the security of the network will therefore be increased. Strebe (2004) recommends assigning random passwords for each user and having the specific user report to the administrator in person to receive it. This approach prevents account compromise, which can occur if a user who was allocated an account does not actually need it and therefore never logs on to change the default password Effective password management is important for ensuring account security. One measure for ensuring this is setting the password age. Easttom (2006) recommends that the maximum password age should be set at 60days (2months) while Microsoft and NSA both recommend 46days (1.5 months). The rationale behind this is that people are unlikely to change their password unless they are obligated to. Even then, they are likely to make use of the same set of two to three favorite passwords. Forcing users to select a new password within a given duration of time will i ncrease the security of the network. This is because such a policy will safeguard against the sharing of passwords since the user will be forced to keep changing their password on a regular basis. However, forcing people to frequently change their passwords might be detrimental to the security of the system. This is because such a policy will cause users to select very easily guessed passwords so that they do not forget the passwords (Strebe, 2004). In other cases, the user might simply modify their simple password slightly so they can keep reusing them. SANS (2012) agrees with this notion by suggesting that user-level passwords should be changed in six months. Instead of enforcing frequent changes, users can be required to memorized highly cryptic passwords. Users are advised to avoid using similar passwords for all their accounts since if an attacker breaks into one account, they can have access to all the other accounts. However, users might have a hard time tracking the numerous passwords used for all their different accounts. Some might resort to using the same password for every account. This is very dangerous since compromise on one account will lead to security problems at the organization. The CERT (2012) recommends the use of a password manager to help users store and trace their unique passwords. A password manager is more secure than writing the password on a piece of paper since it keeps the passwords protected at a central location. Conclusion Computer systems have many risks and effective security measures must be employed to guard against these risks. In addition to investing in security measures such as firewalls and antivirus software, the organization should adhere best security practices provided by various authorities in security implementation. This paper has reviewed some recommendations on accounts and passwords in order to identify the best practices that can ensure optimal protection. By adhering to these recommendations, the organiza tion will be able to benefit from a secure computer network. References CERT (2012). Technical Information Paper-TIP-11-075-01 System Integrity Best Practices. Web. Easttom, C. (2006). Network defense and countermeasures: Principles and practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Strebe, M. (2004). Network Security Foundations: Technology Fundamentals for IT Success. NY: John Wiley Sons. SANS (2012). Critical Control 16: Account Monitoring and Control. Web. Walshaw, R. (2000). Mission Critical Windows 2000 Server Administration. NY: Elsevier. This assessment on Security Recommendations for Accounts and Passwords was written and submitted by user Johnny Harvey to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

A Statistical View of the Juvenile Justice System Essay Example

A Statistical View of the Juvenile Justice System Essay Example A Statistical View of the Juvenile Justice System Paper A Statistical View of the Juvenile Justice System Paper A STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM Najja A. Wells California State University, Dominguez Hills Author Note Najja A. Wells, Department of Public Administration, California State University Dominguez Hills Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Najja A. Wells, Department of Public Administration, California State University, Dominguez Hills 1000 E. Victoria Street, Carson, CA 90747 (310)243-3696 Email: [emailprotected] csudh. edu Policy/Issue Americas youth are faced with an ever-changing set of problems and barriers to successful lives. As a result, we are constantly met with the task of developing enlightened policies and programs to address the needs and risks of those youth that enter our juvenile justice system. The policies we create must be based on facts, not fears or negative assumptions. This document will take a look at the current and former statistics of the juvenile justice system in California and the nation in the years ranging from 1995 until present time. Statistics gathered from an array of sources provide insight of the issues of the juvenile system including disparities in racial representation, trends in criminal behavior of juvenile offenders, methods of entrance into the system, gender and age variations in crimes committed, as well as statistics on the demographic, sociological, and economic factors that are indirectly or directly related to juvenile victimization and crime. Together, these statistics dispel common perceptions of the increase in the rate and proportion of young juveniles entering the system, and provide an informed view of the actualities of the juvenile crime rate and juvenile justice system. Background The juvenile justice system was created in the late 1800s to reform U. S. policies regarding youth offenders. â€Å"The juvenile court was founded at the turn of this century as a specialized institution for dealing with dependent, neglected, and delinquent minors. Its guiding principle was parens patrie, a medieval English doctrine that allowed the Crown to supplant natural family relations whenever a child’s welfare was at stake- in other words, to become a substitute parent. † (Greenwood, Lipson, Abrahamse, amp; Zimring, 1983). Since that time, a number of reforms aimed at both protecting the due process of law rights of youth, and creating an aversion toward jail among the young have made the juvenile justice system more comparable to the adult system, a shift from the United States original intent. The juvenile justice system along with other numerous U. S. programs and systems has undergone many periods of change and reform. The reform and social change of the juvenile justice system begun with the Progressive Era reforms and continued with the â€Å"In re Gault† Supreme Court decision of 1967, the Juvenile Delinquency and Prevention and Control Act of 1968, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Control Act of 1974, and the modern â€Å"Get Tough on Crime† legislation. The most prominent and altering reform phase was in 1974. By 1974, the United States had developed a strong momentum toward preventing juvenile delinquency, deinstitutionalizing youth already in the system, and keeping juvenile offenders separate from adult offenders. The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 created the following entities: The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), The Runaway Youth Program, and The National Institute for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (NIJJDP). History of America’s, 2008) The act of 1974 also offered grants to encourage states to develop community-based programs as alternatives to institutionalization. Law enforcement experimented with the introduction of community-based correctional facilities, such as group homes and halfway houses. (Child or Adult, 2010) The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) compiles arrest information provided by law enforcement agencies each year and creates reports examining the trends, rates a nd statistics of uvenile criminal activity. Every four years the OJJDP publishes a comprehensive study as part of its Juvenile Offenders and Victims National Report Series. The arrest statistics found in these studies are useful for comparing general trends. Existing Problems One of the major and probably most widely known and controversial issues within the juvenile justice system is the apparent disproportional representation of minority offenders in juvenile arrests and delinquency cases. A number of recent surveys have shown that there are profound racial disparities in the juvenile justice system, and that African-American and Hispanic youth are more likely to be tried as adults. They are more likely to receive longer sentences; theyre more likely to be in locked facilities, and on and on and on, even when charged with the same offense as whites. Statistically, race plays a role in the types of crime in which youth become involved. The OJJDP, in its reporting, chronicles how many arrests are made in each of four racial categories – white (includes Hispanic youth), black, American-Indian, and Asian. The study charts arrest rates among different racial groups for specified juvenile crimes. It also compares arrest rates with population rates, and follows arrest rates over time. According to the Juvenile Offender and Victims 2006 National Report, black youth, who accounted for 16% of the juvenile population in 2003, were involved in a disproportionate number of juvenile arrests for robbery (63%), murder (48%), motor vehicle theft (40%), and aggravated assault (38%). The December 2001 bulletin of the Juvenile Offenders and Victims National Report Series published the following statistics on crime in 1999: White youth were arrested for 72 percent of the crime and made up 79 percent of the youth population; black youth were arrested for 25 percent of the crime and made up 16 percent of the youth population, American Indian youth composed 1 percent of the juvenile population and were arrested for 1 percent of the crime, and youth of Asian descent composed 4 percent of the juvenile population and were arrested for 2 percent of the crime (Juvenile crimes demographics, 2008). When looking at the numbers, it appears that juveniles of white descent are actually the ones with a disproportionate representation in the system. This is however untrue. Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) data do not distinguish the ethnic group Hispanic; Hispanics may be of any race. In 2003, 92% of Hispanics ages 10–17 were classified racially as white (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Although a majority of delinquency cases handled in 2002 involved white youth (1,086,700 or 67%), a disproportionate number of cases involved blacks (473,100 or 29%), given their proportion of the juvenile population. In 2002, white youth made up 78% of the juvenile population (youth ages 10 through the upper age of juvenile court jurisdiction in each state), black youth 16%, and youth of other races 6% (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). The issue of racial disparities is by far not a new concept. A report submitted to the Florida Supreme Court Racial and Ethnic Bias Study Commission in 1990 by two gentlemen D. M. Bishop and C. E. Frazier, revealed that race (if non-white) did make a difference with regard to outcome decisions. According to Bishop and Frazier: â€Å"Nonwhite juveniles processed for delinquency offenses in 1987 received more severe (i. e. , more formal and/or restrictive) dispositions than their white counterparts at several stages of juvenile processing. Specifically, we found that when juvenile offenders were alike in terms of age, gender, seriousness of the offense which prompted the current referral, and seriousness of their prior records, the probability of receiving the harshest disposition available at each of several processing stages was higher for nonwhite than for white youth. These disparities were found to exist for petition, secure detention, commitment to an institution, and transfers to an adult court. † (Pope and Feyerherm, 1995). Concern with racial disparity in the juvenile justice system extends to both sides of the bench. Bridget Jones, former supervisor of the juvenile division of the Santa Clara County Public Defenders Office said, â€Å"The system is not fair. Institutional racism is alive and well in the juvenile justice system, as it is in the criminal justice system. Its easier to identify with people that are more like yourself, so if you have judges that are predominantly from that same community, they can identify. . . . The same thing happens with people who have money versus people who dont have moneyif they can demonstrate a support system that can act as a safety net or think they can act as a safety net for them on the outside; judges are more prone to buy into that. † (Is the system, 2010). The supervising deputy district attorney for the Juvenile Division of the Santa Clara Countys District Attorneys office, Kurt Kumli, concurs with his statement: â€Å"You cant go into any ourtroom in this state and take a look at the kids that are in custody and the kids that are out of custody and deny that there is racial disparity in the juvenile justice system. I think there are a number of reasons why there are racial disparities in the system. The law is skewed with respect to the social factors that are considered, in terms of making a determination of who gets locked up and who doesnt. And since it is skewed in such a way as to essentially favor more affluent kids or to punish kids that are less affluent, that have racial and ethnic consequences. (Is the system, 2010)? Another issue within the juvenile justice system is the inaccuracy of the true amount of juvenile criminal activity. Official records often under represent juvenile delinquent behavior. Many juveniles who commit offenses are never arrested or are not arrested for all their delinquencies. As a result, official records systematically underestimate the scope of juvenile crime. In addition, to the extent that other factors may influence the types of crimes or offenders that enter the justice system, official records may also distort the attributes of juvenile crime. Although official records may be inadequate measures of the level of juvenile offending, they do monitor justice system activity. Analysis of variations in official statistics across time and jurisdictions provides an understanding of justice system caseloads. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). An alternative method used to gain insight of juvenile delinquent behavior is through self-report studies. Self-report studies ask victims or offenders to report on their experiences and behaviors. Self-report studies can capture information on behavior that never comes to the attention of juvenile justice agencies. Compared with official studies, self-report studies find a much higher proportion of the juvenile population involved in delinquent behavior. Self-report studies, however, have their own limitations. A youth’s memory limits the information that can be captured. This, along with other problems associated with interviewing young children, is the reason that the National Crime Victim ization Survey does not attempt to interview children below age 12. Some victims and offenders are also unwilling to disclose all law violations. Finally, it is often difficult for self-report studies to collect data from large enough samples to develop a sufficient understanding of relatively are events, such as serious violent offending. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Age and gender representation and differences in the system is possibly one of the smallest issues within the juvenile justice system. On the whole, far fewer juvenile females than males commit crimes. In 1999, females accounted for only 27 percent of juvenile arrests. In 2000, they accounted for 28 percent of juvenile arrests. Females were most involved in: prostitution/commercialized vice arrests, embezzlement arrests, theft arrests, and runaway arrests. Juvenile females were least involved in rape arrests, sexual offense (excluding rape and prostitution), and gambling and robbery arrests. The arrest rate among young women did not experience the peak and fall that characterized male juvenile arrests during the 1990s. Instead, female juvenile arrest rates have steadily grown for the past 20 years. (Juvenile Crimes-Demographics, 2008). Juveniles are defined by the OJJDP as youth under the age of 18. In 1999, the year analyzed in the OJJDP’s National Report Series, juveniles composed 17 percent of all U. S. arrests. Youth under the age of 15 made up 32 percent of all juvenile arrests. Youth under the age of 15 were most likely to be arrested for arson, vandalism, or assault cases. Youth between 15 and 17 made up 68 percent of all juvenile arrests. Youth between the ages of 15 and 17 were most likely to be arrested for alcohol and drug violation cases. Theft, simple assault, and drug use crimes represented the highest number of arrests overall. (Juvenile crime-demographics, 2008). In 2002, the delinquency case rate for 16-year-olds was 1. 6 times the rate for 14-year-olds and the rate for 14-year-olds was 3. 1 times the rate for 12year-olds. The increase in rates between age 13 and age 17 was sharpest for drug offenses; the rate for drug offenses for 17-year-old juveniles was 8 times the rate for 13-year-olds. (Source: Authors’ adaptation of Stahl et al. ’s Juvenile Court Statistics 2001–2002. ) Most delinquency cases involve older teens. High-school-age juveniles (ages 14 and older) made up 80% of the delinquency caseload in 2002, older teens (ages 16 and older) accounted for 42%. In comparison, middle-school-age juveniles (ages 12 and 13) were involved in 16% of delinquency cases, while juveniles younger than 12 accounted for 5%. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). A final major issue that deserves examination  within the juvenile justice system is the behavioral, social, and economic factors/ problems that are prevalent in juveniles already in the system and are associated with the expectancy of juvenile delinquency. A recent study using data from NLSY97 explored the factors associated with a youth’s self-reported law-violating behaviors. One significant factor was a youth’s family structure. In general, the research showed that juveniles who lived with both biological parents had lower lifetime prevalence of law-violating behaviors than did juveniles who lived in other family types. For example, the study found that 5% of youth age 17 who lived with both biological parents reported ever being in a gang, compared with 12% of youth who lived in other family arrangements. Similarly, youth at age 17 living with both biological parents reported a lower lifetime prevalence, compared with youth living in other types of families, for a wide range of problem behaviors: marijuana use (30% vs. 0%), hard drug use (9% vs. 13%), drug selling (13% vs. 19%), running away from home (13% vs. 25%), vandalism(34% vs. 41%), theft of something worth more than $50 (19% vs. 17%), assault with the intent to seriously injure (20% vs. 35%). Family structure is correlated with a youth’s race and ethnicity; that is, white non-Hispanic youth are more likely to live in families with two biologi cal parents than are black or Hispanic youth. Therefore, patterns that indicate racial or ethnic differences in self-reported behavior may in reality be reflecting differences in family structure. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). It is seemingly common belief that juveniles that come from a single-parent household, with more times than often, an incarcerated parent are more likely to become involved in law-violating behaviors. The study also found other factors related to juveniles’ self-reported involvement in law-violating behaviors. The most closely related factor was the presence of friends or family members in gangs. For example, compared with juveniles who did not have friends or families in gangs, those who did were at least 3 times more likely to report having engaged in vandalism, a major theft, a serious assault, carrying a handgun, and selling drugs. They were also about 3 times more likely to use hard drugs and to run away from home. Connectedness to school and/or work also was related to juveniles’ self-reported law-violating behavior. Juveniles who were neither in school nor working had a significantly greater risk of engaging in a wide range of problem behaviors- using marijuana and hard drugs, running away from home, belonging to a gang, committing a major theft or a serious assault, selling drugs, and carrying a handgun. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Possible Outcomes if Problem is not solved If the problems within the juvenile justice system are not addressed, and actions are not set forth to reform current policies, the present issues will not only remain, but will become even more pertinent and numbers will continue to increase. New programs have been developed to determine the probability of juvenile delinquency at ages as young as nine (or that of a third grade student). The prison system is a private enterprise that functions on capitalism and profit. Since these agencies have already created systems to classify children and prepare a place for them in a delinquency center before they even complete elementary education, a continued lack of involvement on all levels of society-parents, schools, community, and government will only act as a catalyst for the continued incarceration of youth. There will be a continuous disparity in racial representation, juveniles will receive harsher punishments because of assumed liability, the age of offenders will have slight change, violent crimes will flourish, and the presence of juvenile females in the system will continue to increase. Possible Outcomes if the Problem is Solved To better understand how to improve the juvenile justice system, a combination of self-reports and official recorded data must be integrated together. Carefully used, self-report and official statistics provide insight into crime and victimization. Delbert Elliott, Director of the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, has argued that to abandon either self-report or official statistics in favor of the other is â€Å"rather shortsighted; to systematically ignore the findings of either is dangerous, particularly when the two measures provide apparently contradictory findings. Elliott stated that a full understanding of the etiology and development of delinquent behavior is enhanced by using and integrating both self-report and official record research. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). An increase in racially diverse judges and personnel within the court system will encourage a decrease in the conviction and harsh punishments implemente d on juveniles of minority backgrounds. In relation to the racial disparities within the juvenile justice system, Judge Ladoris Cordell who erved on the Superior Court of the Santa Clara County offers a solution. She says: â€Å"One way is to increase the number of judges on the bench who are judges who look like the people who come before them. So, if I have judges who are African-American, who are Latino or Latina, who are from the Asian-American communities, they are less likely to engage in that kind of stereotyping when some young kid who is of the same background or same ethnic background comes before that judge. . . . The other is, there are judges who are white, black, whatever, who have those biases. The idea is to address those biases, to get them to address it, which means judicial training. † Trends The reports generated by the OJJDP, although not infallible in representing crime rates, are effective at showing trends and general patterns. The following patterns in juvenile crime have been particularly interesting: * Since 1994 most arrest rates have been in steady decline. Murder arrest rates, for example, were 74% lower in 2000 than they were in 1993. * Between 1987 and 1994 most arrest rates increased sharply. Aggravated assault rates doubled, as did murder rates. * Males drove the 1987-1994 spikes in the murder arrest rate, and the increases were seen in acts committed with firearms. (Juvenile Crime, 2008) A common perception in the last few years was that the rate and proportion of young juveniles (under age 13) entering the juvenile justice system had increased. This statement is not true. In 1980, there were an estimated 1,476 arrests of persons ages 10–12 for every 100,000 persons in this age group in the U. S. population. By 2003, this arrest rate had fallen to 1,296, a decline of 12%. In 1980, 9. 5% of all juvenile arrests were arrests of persons under age 13; in 2003, this percentage had decreased to 8. 5%- with the majority of the decrease occurring during the mid-1990s. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Gender-specific factors also influence juvenile arrest trends. If juvenile males and females were contributing equally to an arrest trend, then the female proportion of juvenile arrests would remain constant. A major story in the last few years has been the rise in the proportion of females entering the juvenile justice system. In 1980, 20% of all juvenile arrests were female arrests; in 2003, this percentage had increased to 29%- with the majority of this growth since the early 1990s. The female proportion increased between 1980 and 2003 in juvenile arrests for Violent Crime Index offenses (from 10% to 18%) and for Property Crime Index offenses (from 19% to 32%); however, the female proportion of drug abuse violations arrests was the same in 1980 and 2003 (16%). Between 1980 and 2003, the female percentage of juvenile violent crime arrests increased, with the overall increase tied mainly to aggravated assault arrests. (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Between 1994 and 2003, female juvenile arrests either increased more or decreased less than male juvenile arrests in many offense categories (e. g. , driving under the influence, drug abuse violations, simple assault, liquor law violations, and aggravated assault). As a result, while male juvenile arrests declined 22% over the period, female juvenile arrests declined just 3%. Between 1994 and 2003, while both juvenile and adult male arrests for simple assault changed little (1% and –5%, respectively), arrests for both juvenile and adult females increased substantially (36% and 31%, respectively). This implies that the increase in juvenile female arrests for simple assault over the period was a trend for females in general, not for juvenile females specifically. Recommendations To help improve the issues within the juvenile justice system, involvement, reform, and social change has to extend has to extend to all areas of society. Parents must first take a proactive stance in their children’s education and rearing; schools need to provide more after-school programs and alternative learning models for troubled students; the community needs to offer more functional and supportive outreach programs to deter criminal activity; juvenile centers must keep to the purpose of rehabilitating the juveniles instead of inconspicuously preparing for the recurrence of criminal activity, and finally those involved in the courts must work on refraining from racial biases, prejudices, and extraneous sentencing on juveniles. Conclusion The juvenile justice system is full of troubled juveniles that didn’t think they would get caught. Because of harsh and sometimes extraneous legal policies, juveniles are often treated as adults in the system and the purpose of rehabilitation seems only but a distant dream. Unfortunate racial, socioeconomic, gender, and behavioral biases that have been placed upon numerous juveniles continue to cause major discrepancies within the system. A sad byproduct of the issues associated with entering the juvenile system is the label juveniles receive and the social stigmatism after their release. Although there has been evidence of decreases in juvenile criminal activity, the lack of efficient reporting, and continuous exposure of the juvenile justice system’s flaws is still very evident in news reports and the media. Once labeled a juvenile delinquent, these juveniles still will have a difficult time removing that label even if they turn their life around and begin to make better choices. All the negativity associated with the juvenile justice system brings one to question whether enough is being done to prevent the issue, rehabilitate present offenders, and deter future activity. The reformation of the juvenile justice system is a task that cannot rest on the efforts of an individual, or one solitary group. It is not until it becomes a national concern that any change can take place. If the children are our future, then their freedom is our duty. References Basic Statistics. (2001). Retrieved October 11, 2010 from Frontline, Juvenile Justice: bs. org/? wgbh/? pages/? frontline/? shows/? juvenile/? stats/? basic. html. Child or Adult? A Century Long View. (2010). Retrieved from October 25, 2010 Frontline, Juvenile Justice: pbs. org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/juvenile/stats/childadult. html Is the system racially biased? (2010). Retrieved October 11, 2010 from Frontline, Juvenile Justice: pbs. org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/juvenile/bench/race. html Flatley, J, Kers haw, C, Smith, K, Chaplin, R, amp; Moon, D. Home Office, Home Office Statistics Unit. 2010). Crime in England and Wales 2009/2010. United Kingdom: Crown Copyright. Greenwood, P. W. , Lipson, A. J. , Abrahamse, A, amp; Zimring, F. State of California Assembly Rules Committee. (1983). Youth crime and juvenile justice in California: a report to the legislature (Rand-3016-CSA). California: The Rand Corporation History of Americas Juvenile Justice System. (2008). Retrieved October 11, 2010 from Einstein Law, Lawyershop. com: lawyershop. com/? practice-areas/? criminal-law/? juvenile-law/? histor

The Bitter Truth about Betty Botter You’re Not Thinking Straight

The Bitter Truth about Betty Botter You’re Not Thinking Straight Can you say this tongue twister 10x fast? Betty Botter bought some butter, â€Å"But,† she said, â€Å"This butter’s bitter! If I put it in my batter, It will make my batter bitter!† So she bought some better butter, Put it in her bitter batter, Made her bitter batter better. I learned this one from my mother when I was young, and I always thought it was an easy one to roll off the tongue. I also thought it was cute and logical. I always enjoyed tongue twisters growing up, and even got to perform one (Rubber Baby Buggy Bumpers) when I was on Sesame Street as a kid. Yes that was a moment of fame and glory! Stopping to Think I never really delved into the meaning of a given tongue twister. But on my recent trip to visit family in Austin, the Betty Botter rhyme came into my wandering mind after some talk with my mom about bats and batters- and I realized there’s a gaping logical hole in the poem. Here’s the question: How did the batter get bitter if Betty Botter never put the bitter butter in her batter in the first place? I went straight to my mom with my question. Surely, I thought, I must be remembering the words wrong! There must be a line I was missing! But mom confirmed that I remembered the words just as she had passed them down to me- and she admitted that she, too, had missed the gap in logic in the verse. Next stop Google. Perhaps mom had learned an incomplete version of the poem? Here’s what I found on Wikipedia as the full text: Betty Botter bought some butter; â€Å"But,† said she, â€Å"this butter’s bitter! If I put it in my batter It will make my batter bitter. But a bit o’ better butter Will but make my batter better.† Then she bought a bit o’ butter Better than the bitter butter, Made her bitter batter better. So ’twas better Betty Botter Bought a bit o’ better butter. While this version is longer and a bit of a better tongue twister, it by no means solved the problem that Betty never put that bitter butter in her batter! And while I did find one version that had a line, â€Å"The butter Betty Botter bought was a bit bitter / And made her batter bitter,† this version was clunky and contrived. Sigh†¦ We Are Gullible How many things like this are there in our lives? How easy is it for someone, or for the media, to trick us with a clever gimmick into accepting something as reasonable or logical that simply makes no sense? I’m reminded of the well-known joke that goes something like this: What’s the opposite of least? Most. What do you call a person who throws a party? The host. What’s another word for seashore? Coast. What’s another word for brag? Boast. What do you call a dead person who comes back to life? A ghost. What do you put in a toaster? Toast. Oops. You don’t put toast in a toaster. The correct answer is â€Å"bread.† Or maybe â€Å"a bagel.† Back to Google. I put â€Å"what do you put in a toaster joke† into my search bar and was gifted with multiple lists of jokes that made me feel like an idiot when I read them. I was hoping for some brain science around these types of jokes, but came up empty except for one suggestion that brain training can be accomplished without the help of Luminosity.com. Read, Think and Listen Carefully Mostly I am reminded by all these examples to pay attention. To listen carefully and closely, and as much as possible, not to accept things at face value. This is easier said than done, and I know I will miss important subtleties and inconsistencies more often than I would like to predict. And in the meantime, I will leave you with this: A plane crashes fatally on the border of the United States and Canada. Where do they bury the survivors? Answer: First of all, it sounds like there were no survivors. But even if there were, you do not bury survivors. They are alive.

Case St. Marks Hospital and Oscar Yanez Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

St. Marks Hospital and Oscar Yanez - Case Study Example The researcher states that the healthcare providers in the hospital have to live with the fact that they did not do as their mission statement stated that they would do as they were busy thinking of ways of saving their income. Although this kind of operation is meant to help the larger community get better basic healthcare services, mismanaging one of their patients does not justify their seemingly good intentions. In any case, the hospital’s mission does state that it will provide the best healthcare services to everyone. It does not single out the uninsured and unregistered immigrants as undeserving of quality medical care. Furthermore, in its bid to help Oscar get repatriated back to Mexico, the hospital failed to consider the welfare of the family considering that Oscar is the family’s sole breadwinner. Even though the hospital cares to ensure that Oscar is discharged without being submitted to immigration authorities, it is clear that the rest of the familyâ€℠¢s welfare is not taken into account. Therefore, the way Oscar was treated was hardly ethical. Once again considering the mission of the hospital, it is beyond doubt that its actions regarding the priorities it has set highly are clearly against its mission statement. The hospital mission states that the organization will provide quality and emergency care to all patients. Ignoring the care of patients in need of emergency care or making this objective secondary to the provision of services such as immunizations, prenatal care, and other community programs clearly goes against ethics and the hospital’s mission. The hospital is a legal organization has the responsibility to report the existence or presence of illegal immigrants to appropriate authorities. In this case, the hospital is legally required was supposed to report Oscar’s presence as an undocumented immigrant to immigration authorities.

Adolescence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Adolescence - Essay Example dards in the very process, adolescents show higher-order reasoning about the self and its qualities, with peer relations taking precedence away from familial relations in terms of assessing personal competence. They, more often than children use social comparative mechanics while evaluating themselves Several areas of the brain undergo transformative realignment during the transition to adolescence. Among the notable structural changes in the brain during this period include a decrease in gray matter in the prefrontal regions of the brain. These anatomical changes referred to in the medical field as synaptic pruning, kicks off the elimination of unused connections between neurons; a process believably underpins the improvements in basic cognitive abilities and logical reasoning. Another important change in the brain during adolescence is the increased dopaminergic activity in pathways that connect the limbic system. Basically, the dopamine receptors become densely distributed within the prefrontal cortex; regions where emotions are processed and rewards and punishments experienced. Dopamine plays a critical role in the judgment of experiences, thus the explanation for sensation-seeking through experimentation. Finally, there is the increase of white matter in the very same prefrontal cortex of the brain during adolescence via a process known as myelination; the process through which nerve fibers become sheathed in myelin for more efficient neural connectivity within the region. This is an important adjustment for higher-order cognitive functions such as weighing of risks, advanced planning among other complicated decisions. To begin with, children basically interact/play with friends within the vicinity of their environment and/those chosen to them by those around them, mostly their parents. To be specific, such friends are usually close relatives or those from the neighbouring families. Such fiends are generally playmates, with no strings for long-term

Dont Blame the Eater Essay Example for Free

Dont Blame the Eater Essay In his article dont blame the eater Zinczenko blames the food industry for the obesity epidemic. Zinczenko opens his articles with a personal story about growing up eating fast food because his parents split up, his mom had to work and he had no other options. He goes on to give statistics on childhood diabetes due to obesity. Zinczenko then insists that complicating the lack of alternatives is the lack of information about what exactly were consuming. over all Zinczenko is advocating changes in the fast food industry because he believes there is a direct link between obesity, monies spent on fast food advertising and the costs of health care. I agree with Zinczenko that the fast food industry needs to change by as Zinczenko put it â€Å"providing the nutrition information people need to make informed choices about their products. However I question his claim of not blaming the eater that the food industry is to blame for todays rate of childhood obesity. After all I do believe as Zinczenko states â€Å"shouldn’t we know better than to eat two meals a day in fast food restaurants? † Growing up my parents divorced and, like Zinczenko, I was a latch key kid. Everyday my parents made sure my brother and I had lunch for school and dinner that night. As a parent today I understand the pressure of taking care of things, kids, school, work, extracurricular activities, laundry, making dinner and then trying to squeeze in quality time with the family and possibly a social life. With all that going on we always have a choice. I make my family and what they eat a priority, so I make it a point to buy health easy snacks like fruit, yogurt, cheese sticks, and granola bars. Dont get me wrong we buy and eat cookies, and on a Friday night dinner is takeout. But the rest of the week I make it a priority to cook and eat at home. This means planning ahead, it may mean I cook in advance during a really busy week, we will have leftovers once a week and the crockpot at times is my best friend. I do it because the health of my family is important to me and I choose not to feed them fast foods. Over all I believe it is the responsibility of the individual and the parents of children to make the right choices and to educate themselves and their children about making the right choices and typo educate themselves and their children about healthy eating habits. Hopefully with education and the help of government regulations we can help guide people into making better choices and help fight disease due to obesity, after all as Zinczenko said the problem isnt just theres its all of ours.

Why Suburbs are bad for United States Health :: essays research papers

A common definition of a suburb is a community in an outlying section of a city or, more commonly, a nearby, politically separate municipality with social and economic ties to the central city. In the 20th cent., particularly in the United States, population growth in urban areas has spilled increasingly outside the city limits and concentrated there, resulting in large metropolitan areas where the populations of the suburbs taken together exceed that of the central city. As growth of the suburbs continues, cost of labor for common suburban housing drops increasingly low. Houses are built with cheaper, less expensive materials and are built with the same model of construction time and time again. As this does no harm financially, the western world loses any uniqueness it once had. Meaning their is a very small amount of difference between Burnsville,Minnesota and Boone County,Kentucky. In modern suburbs things like cul-de-sacs and tangle towns are more common to be designed with. This makes it virtually impossible to include a mass transit system into the suburb. Thus, more driving, more gas use, and more emissions created in the atmosphere. A common response to this from a suburban residential is that the city is jam packed with congestion and pollution from stop and go traffic. Yet with cities, they are more dense, highly populated and many of the stop and go traffic is created by workers who live in the suburbs coming into the city at rush hour. One thing that works well in a typical city is mass transit. Things like buses, subways and train systems work well with block by square block areas, but not so with winding curving neighborhoods such as in suburbs. Another reason why mass transit does not play a major roll in the life of one who lives in a suburb is that suburban commuting consists of many different directions and destinations. Where as in the city typi cal people are commuting into the downtown. A central destination such as a downtown keeps things more conveniently close, and since so many people are making the trip to one single common place then gas can be saved by major carpooling, or in other words mass transit. An attraction to the suburbs for someone looking to raise a family is the suburbs generally contain less crime, less congestion and more isolation from a fast pace life.

Foreign Policy Analysis : Compare and Contrast Nigeria’s Relationship with the U.S.A. Essay

INTRODUCTION: A country’s foreign policy is a set of goals outlining how the country will interact with other countries economically, politically, socially and militarily, and to a lesser extent how the country will interact with non-state actors. The aforementioned interaction is evaluated and monitored in attempts to maximize benefits of multi-lateral international cooperation. Foreign policies are desired to help project a country’s national interest, national security ideological goals and economic prosperity. This can occur as a result of peaceful cooperation with other nations or even through exploitation. Foreign policy analysis is the systematic study of and research into the processes and theories of foreign policy. This paper seeks to evaluate the relationship (economic and military) that has existed between Nigeria and the United States of America. (U.S.A) in two very different epochs. (1960-1966), post independence, and between 1999- 2003, the immediate democratic era after a lengthy post-military  interregnum. The paper shall consist of an introduction and segments on conceptual clarifications, theoretical framework, X-ray of topic under study, and the conclusion drawn from the study shall also be presented. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION International Relations: Rossenau, (1961). Views international relations as the study of the transactions, contacts, flows of information between and among separately organized nation state. Holsti, (1972). Defines international relations to encompass all forms of interaction between the members of distinct societies. Adeniran, (1983). submits that international relations is an area of study which focuses on the political, economic and other interactions among international actors and the inter-state systems. Economic relations: is a relationship between two or more states that revolves around the promotion, exchange of finance, industry and general trading activities. Military relations: A military is an organization authorized by its nation to use force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military is made up of a force or forces with a capability to execute national defense policy. Military relations deal with the interaction between and among nation states to enhance capability development especially as it affects the strategic, operational, logistic and tactical requirements their military forces. Military relations are characterized by the exchange of combat arms and support services. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework within which this study shall be conducted, is the decision making approach. The theory focuses attention on the processes of public decision making. A political action has the character of a decision taken by some actors in a specific situation through a particular process. Political actions can be understood by referring to the person who took the decision and the inter-active processes by which the decision was reached. While following the decision making approach, the political scientist has to encounter a complex set of social psychological and institutional processes. Hence, this approach has to draw on several concepts developed in sociology, social psychology and psychology. Mahajan, (2000:39). The decision making approach has two fundamental purposes one is the identification of â€Å"crucial structures† in the political realm where changes take place, where decisions are made, where actions are initiated and carried out. While, the other is a systematic analysis of the decision making behaviour which leads to action. In other words, the decision approach focuses inquiry on actors called decision makers and on the state defined as the decision unit. Hence, the actions of the state are seen through the actions of the decision makers. The crux here is that if a sufficient knowledge of the behaviour and activities of the known actors is established, it can lay the foundation for the explanation of a decision. Okere, (2000:115) NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES Foreign policy objectives are built upon some general principles or national interests which is embodied in the nation’s constitution. Foreign policy objectives of any nation can be classified into a trinity of military strategic, political/diplomatic and economic/cultural imperatives. In the first republic, (1960-1966) which constitutes a part of this study’s focal point the principal objectives that guided Nigeria’s foreign policy, were enunciated by sir, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa the first prime minister of Nigeria, to include among others; -Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of other states. -Non-interference in the internal affairs of other states. -The promotion of functional cooperation among African states. Chapter II, sub section 19 of the 1999 constitution outlines the foreign policy objectives of Nigeria between 1999-2003. Which constitutes the second leg of the study’s time frame. What is however certain is that under the two different epochs that Nigeria’s foreign policy is to be subjected to scrutiny by this study, the principal objective of the foreign policy has been to promote and protect the country’s national interest in its interactions and relationships with specific countries in the international system. (Abdullahi: 2004). NIGERIA-AMERICA RELATIONS: Motives for Collaboration President Kennedy once noted that: â€Å"Every nation determines its policies in term of its own interest† The traditional American foreign policy encompasses both moral idealism and raw self-interests. The United States’ primary interest in relation to Nigeria is oil. As a voracious consumer of the country’s â€Å"sweet† (i.e., low-sulfur) petroleum, America recognizes Nigeria’s worth as the largest oil producer in Africa and the fifth largest in the OPEC. Nigeria has been one of the largest exporters of crude oil to the United States. American companies such as shell, Exxon Mobil, and Chevron have substantial investments in the lucrative Nigerian oil industry, which, along with other Western oil companies, they dominate. Nigeria led a peacekeeping mission as part of the Economic Community of West Africa States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) that helped to stabilize long-time U.S. allies Liberia and Sierra Leone. A third U.S. interest is the maintenance of America cultural-historical linkages to the country of Nigeria. A great number of Americans trace their roots to Africa. Many of those Americans, including entertainer-scholar Paul b. Robeson (1898-1976), trace those origins to Nigeria. Last, but certainly not least, America needs Nigeria’s help in its campaign against international drug trafficking. The economic hardships in Nigeria, resulted in the emergence of a significant drug-dependent culture and in the conversion of Nigerian borders into a major route for the trafficking of cocaine and heroin into the United States. The United States also looks to Nigeria to help reduce the number of Americans victimized by the offer of Nigerian business opportunities that are â€Å"too good to be true.† according to one estimate, â€Å"Americans lose $2 billion annually to white [collar] crime syndicates based in Nigeria.† Nigeria sees in the United States a steady buyer of its oil. Although Nigeria’s share of the U.S. market has fluctuated over the years, the United States remains a primary purchaser of Nigerian crude oil. Second, Nigeria values political ties with America. The United States is one of the most powerful countries in the world, and the two countries share similar demographic features such as ethnic, economic, and religious complexities. Nigeria relies on these political connections as it experiments with a presidential style of government. Third, like many developing countries, Nigeria seeks to tap into America â€Å"technological capabilities† for its manpower development needs. Tens of thousands of Nigerians have flocked to the United States in search of higher education. Nigeria will maximize the benefit of its relationship with the United States by identifying and exploiting the points at which the two nations’ interests overlap. Nigeria and U.S. interests converge with respect to the purchase and sale of crude oil and the necessity of maintaining cordial political relations. (Aka, 2005) It should be noted that in the period under review, (1960-1966), it was the prime minister that maintained a near monopoly of control over the country’s foreign policy (Aluko, 1977). For Nigeria on the other hand, there was a compelling need to industrialize the economy and modernize agriculture immediately after independence. To achieve this objectives, the country would require foreign aid and the diversification of the country’s overseas market – America was one of the countries she looked up to for the injection of the required capital to f und her development plans. NIGERIA UNITED STATES’ RELATIONS (1960-1966) For centuries, United States foreign policy has been outwardly characterized by its diplomatic and economic encouragement of fledging democracies around the world. In particular, the nations of Africa and particularly Nigeria are seen to benefit from America’s idealistic foreign Agenda. (Aka, 2005). It should however be noted that few foreign political actions are based entirely in good will; they are more often rooted in prudence and rationality. Although promoting democracy may, as was earlier stated, be a sufficient national interest in and of itself, such idealistic abstraction is usually augmented by more concrete or material considerations. This is certainly true for the United States’ interest in relations with Nigeria. (Aka, 2005). There are a plethora of cultural, historical and political reasons why Nigeria has been important to the U.S. These range form population, oil, resource and strategic military importance. Nigeria’s colonial history left behind external economic relations policy that was closely linked with the west. This continued to have profound impact on the country’s external behaviour even after independence on 1st October, 1960 (Aluko, 1977). Therefore, The Nigerian foreign policy between 1960 – 1966 was politically and economically aligned (in spite of the non-alignment principle) to the west especially Britain and America. In main, due to colonial hangover (Abullahi, 2004). In recognition of the newly independent Nigeria’s potentials for a mutually beneficial relationship, the United States of America was represented at the independence celebrations by the Governor of New-York State, Mr. Nelson Rockefeller. Immediately after, on October 7, 1960, Prime Minister Balewa traveled to New-York to register Nigeria as the 99th member of the United Nations thereby becoming a recognized member of the international community. While in the U.S, the prime minister met and invited President Eisenhower to visit Nigeria at the earliest opportunity. Thus, it is clear that from the first week of independence, Nigeria had established a cordial relationship with the United States of America. (Clark, 1991). It was in the spirit of this warm relationship between these two giant states that President Kennedy extended an invitation to Nigeria’s prime minister to visit the U.S. on 21st July 1961. While in America, the Nigerian Head of Government was accorded the r are honour of addressing a joint session of the United States congress. Wherein he stated, â€Å"Our affinity with the U.S is two fold – a history of common struggles to achieve freedom from anything that is oppressive to the human spirit. Also, a blood affinity- between our two countries, there resides the largest concentration of peoples with African blood†. (Clark, 1991) The Americans stated that Nigeria was a very important friend of the United States. Balewa held a meeting with President Kennedy at the oval office together with secretary of state Dean Rusk to discuss military relations between the two states as well as the situation in Angola and Congo. Situations where the two nations had conflicting interests. On the economic front, Nigeria appealed to the U.S for assistance in building the Niger dam for power generation purposes, comparing the project to the Tennesse Dam Authority. At the end of the visit, a joint statement was issued by the two nations emphasizing the U.S economic aid to Nigeria in the areas of agricultural production and public health care services. American investments into the Nigerian economy grew and amounted to over $800 million and over a third of American total investments in Africa. (Clark Ibid, Aluko: 1977) In concluding this part of the work, it is evident that America had a profound security, political, and economic interest in Africa and Nigeria as a regional power was seen as bellwether nation in the period under study. This explains the warm economic and military relations between the two nations. NIGERIA – AMERICA: 1999 – 2003 (The years of Restoration) The election of Olusegun Obasanjo, a retired general and former military head of state from 1976 to 1979 marked a historic point in the history of the Nigeria-U.S relations. Obasanjo’s ascendancy to the Nigerian Presidency was warmly received by the United States especially because the preceding regime of Gen. Sani Abacha had a very strained relationship with the United States over a wide range of issues that included Human rights violations and Democratization. The optimism and excitement of the Americans derived from a past experience of friendly relations with General Obasanjo as Head of state. In fact, the first American President to visit Nigeria was Jimmy carter when Obasanjo was military Head of state. (Abdullahi, 2004). At the political level, shortly after assumption of office in May 1999, president Obasanjo had paid a visit to then President Bill Clinton to hold bilateral talks and also with incumbent President Bush. American-Nigeria relations grew in bounds within this period. The removal of visa restrictions, increased high-level visits of US officials, discussions of future assistance and the granting of a national interest certification on counter-narcotics effective in March 1999, strengthened the ties of friendship between the two nations and Nigeria emerged as a key partner of the U.S on the continent. (Msn.com) Two American Presidents, Bill Clinton and George Bush visited Nigeria in August 2000 and July 2003 respectively. ECONOMIC RELATIONS Economic assistance from the U.S to Nigeria increased within the period under study. Rising to $78.5 million in 2000 from 23.6 Million in 1999. In 2003, US economic assistance to Nigeria is estimated at $ 65.2 million. The American challenge in its policy towards Nigeria was to formulate a substantive partnership against the background that Nigeria provides 8  percent of America’s oil needs. (Msn.com) The United States worked closely with the central bank of Nigeria and other relevant institutions to improve the environment for investment in agriculture through policy reforms at the national and state levels. Other trade initiatives by the U.S government included capacity building in customs operations, policy reforms to encourage trade exchanges, African growth and opportunity act (AGOA) incentives for bilateral trade. Nigeria also benefited from the initiative to end hunger in Africa plan, among several other programmes. (Msn.com) What all of this demonstrates is the fact that between 1999-2003 the economic relations between Nigeria was not only very cordial and engaging, but it was characterized by the inflow of several technical aid packages intent to help boost the fortunes of the Nigerian economy. MILITARY RELATIONS In the area of defense relations between Nigeria and the U.S, the United States has supported the peacekeeping and simulation centres at the war college in Abuja-the only one of its kind in Africa. Other areas of U.S Nigeria defense relations in the period under review included personnel training, developmental and technical aid, arms sales to Nigeria, law enforcement co-operation in border control and against arms smuggling and oil theft. Military cooperation between Nigeria and U.S has been clearly manifested in the effort at resolving the Liberian crises. Wherein the U.S provided logistical equipment to the Nigerian military. The training of Nigeria military personnel in American institutions intensified. The United States also offered to provide specialized training and some facilities to the Nigeria police within this period. However, the military relationship between Nigeria and America was not without challenges or even tensions, for example, Nigerians, civilians and military alike were not keen on U.S military presence in their country. Many still attribute General Obasanjo’s replacement of Victor Malu as army chief to Malu’s open opposition to the increased military co-operation with the United States. It is the thought out opinion of this paper, that Nigeria-U.S relations within this period, especially as it concerns the economic and military ties, was in a state of growth and expansion (Aka; 2005). A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO EPOCHS American – Nigerian relations in the first republic (1960-1966) was predicated upon a mutual need for each other by the two nations. It was a relationship of mutual respect and friendliness. But most importantly, it was a dignified relationship for Nigeria which though a very young independent state, had effectively mobilized her resources to earn a respectful height within the community of nations in such a short time. (Clark 1991). Nigeria had cause to request for the in flow of American capital into her economy but even this did not diminish her sense of pride and independence. Whenever the need arose, Nigeria did not shy away from taking a different position to that of America. e.g. on the division of the world into blocs, Angola etc. The Head of Nigerian government in this period, Sir, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was awarded a honorary doctorate of laws by the university of New York. He was also made an honorary citizen of three cities: Chicago, New York and New Orleans (Clark: 1991). Between 1999 and 2003, was a period of reengagement for the two na tions after a near total breakdown in relations. But this, time the power dynamics were radically different from what obtained between 1960 and 1966. In 1999, the United States’ of America was not just an alternative power bloc in the world that had another power bloc to contend with. She was now a sole, undisputed world power with an unrivalled economic and military might. (Abdullahi, 2004), whereas Nigeria, in spite of the potentials she is endowed with and the promise she had held in 1960, was a nation almost on her knees, a nation that had retarded in just about every aspect of its life and was attempting to rediscover itself. Prior to 1999, the U.S had stood with the Nigerian people in their struggle against dictatorship. In this era, it was not a relationship of two equals or near equals, No! It was an interaction between a world power and an oil producing strong state, that had fallen into a deep socio-economic comma. It was a â€Å"hand out† relationship. Nigeria looked up to the United States for every form of assistance. The U.S provided much for Nigeria supposedly, in the spirit of encouraging democratic g overnance. Especially, in form of economic and military aid packages. However, American oil corporations had unfettered access to Nigeria’s oil in return. But despite the exchange of visits between the presidents of the two countries, and the increased co-operation between the two countries, America refused to grant Nigeria’s request for a debt cancellation. It maintained that Nigeria had the resources to pay off her debts. The best Nigeria was offered is a  debt rescheduling. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this work was introduced within the frame work of foreign policy analysis, a conceptual clarification of relevant theoretical framework within which the study is located has been stated, Nigeria’s foreign policy objectives has been examined, motives for the collaboration between Nigeria and the U.S was X-rayed. The work also attempted an incisive analysis of the economic and military relationship between the countries in the two different epochs as it was required to do. This work shall now proceed to state some recommendations that should form the basis of a policy of relationship between Nigeria and the United States of America. First, greater consistency in the U.S-Nigeria military-security relationship. Washington should recognize that its national interest is best served if Nigeria is able to be a force for democracy and stability in the region. Military and security collaboration between the two countries and in Africa generally, can only increase, given t he threat of terrorism world wide. Second, increasing America’s diplomatic reach within Nigeria by establishing arenas for U.S. Exchanges with critical areas, such as its oil-producing areas in the Niger Delta and in Northern Nigeria where the U.S closed consular offices. Such diplomatic reach could help the U.S to make a contribution to conflict management in Nigeria. Third, developing a strategy for an economic action agenda in Nigeria, which must involve business and government actors in the U.S and Nigeria, as well as inviting input from the non-governmental sector. Such a strategy should focus on three priorities: first, an acknowledgement of the business community’s responsibility to be a constructive player in Nigeria’s economic and democratic transition; second, a focus on restructuring the extractive industry to curb corruption; and third, a focus on restoring agricultural industries to help alleviate rural poverty, curb rural-urban pressures and strengthen trade and export. Fourth, eliminating debt overhang and investing in education, health and human development; and fifth, strengthening democratic institutions and governance structures which involves supporting democratic dialogue across the political spectrum, as well as assisting in training for elections and parliamentary and political party development. Lastly, America ’s support for Nigeria should now be stronger than ever, with the re-institution of  democratic government. The touchstone should be â€Å"genuinely reciprocal and mutually beneficial† relationships unaffected by the vagaries of power and party affiliation in Washington; a policy that constantly engages the people and the leaders of Nigeria, that is not an appendage of any general policy that constantly engages the people and the leaders of Nigeria, that is not an appendage of any general policy, and that recognizes the fact that only a fundamental restructuring of the political and economic systems can bring about true democracy in Nigeria. (Aka, 2005; Clark, 1991; Abdullahi, 2004) REFERENCES Adeniran, T (1983). Introduction to international relations. Lagos Macmillan Johari, J.C. (1982). Comparative politics London: Sterling publishers. Okere, J.O (2000). Theory, theorizing in international relations and politics Owerri: Achugo Publishers. Mahajan, V.G (2000) Political Theory New Delhi: Chand Publishers. Abdullahi M.Y. (2004). The web of Nigerian politics. Abuja: AnnyPrints Productions. Ojo. O, and Sesay, (2002). Concepts in International Relations. Ile-Ife: University Press. Aluko, O, (ed) (1977). The foreign policy of African states. London: Hodder and Stughton. Maduagwu O.M., and Mohammed A.S. (eds) (2004). Challenges and prospects of Democratization in Nigeria. Fulbright Alumni Association of Nigeria, Book of Reading No. 2. Aka, P.C. (2005). United States of America and Support for Nigeria democratization in American political sciences review Vol, 106, No. 14 (December, 2005). Clark, T. (1991). A Right Honourable Gentleman: The life and times of Sir, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. Zaria: Huda-huda Publishing Company. Msn. Com (nd). retrieved October 17, 2008 from http:about.com/african history. Msn. Com (n.d). retrieved October 18, 2008 from http:www.usembassy nigeria. org. Holsti K.S, (1967). International Politics New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Rosenau, J. (1971). The Scientific study o f foreign policy. New York: the free press.

“Burro Genius” by Victor Villaseñor Essay

Victor Villasenor is, certainly, one of the most famous and beloved authors who has presented his raw and unexpected memoirs to public opinion. Actually, the book explores Victor’s transformation from embarrassed and intimidated young boy into the famous writers of the present world. Thus, his memoir â€Å"Burro Genius† describes difficult life of poor Mexican American boy having been always faced with constant discrimination in his local school system. Villasenor vividly presents struggle between him and teachers and emphasizes the role of parents and God for overcoming all difficulties. Special attention is devoted to spiritual connections with god. It is necessary to say that Villasenor describes his masterpiece as real miracle. (Villasenor 2004) Villasenor says when he stood at the podium facing a group of teachers, who always harassed and discriminated him; he became really furious and enraged with such unfairness. Despite the fact that the boy had never spoken to the public, Victor’s mind was filled with doleful and sorrowful childhood recollections associated with constant misunderstanding, humiliation and power abuse. Victor’s heart was thumbing, though he started his impressive speech about all the incidents taken place during his entering local school. It is mentioned in the book that some listeners couldn’t help but shedding tears. (Villasenor 2004) This is a mournful beginning of Villasenor’s memoirs. The author appears highly talented and imaginative playing with words and sense. For example, he vividly amplifies how he has coped with untreated learning disability meaning that he has diagnosed as dyslexia. Furthermore, the book provides impressive descriptions of frustrations of his life as a Latino boy. He says that American school system has failed to comprehend cultural understanding and has failed to deal properly with Hispanic students. (Villasenor 2004) The author admits that he is born and raised on San Diego County and thus he devotes certain part of the narration to description of several surrounding cities: streets where cattle and domestic animals are seen; dusty roads adapted for horse-riding. Nevertheless, still he remains away from his childhood memoirs not to disturb the picture of quiet life. His memoirs are developing with essay progression; they are filled with lifted spirit of a child, with fears and terrors of classmates and teachers. However, special role is devoted to illustrating racism being able to chill anyone. (Villasenor 2004) Victor says he was often slapped by instructors and kicked by classmates only because of being Mexican guy. Moreover, the boy was considered the stupidest child in the class. Apparently, the author raises important themes not only for his time, but also for present world, because the problem of cultural discrimination and racism touches not only the USA, but the rest of the world. Nowadays many foreign students are suffering from hostile attitudes of native students. Therefore, the author sensitively describes all his hardships, privations and difficulties at school. (Villasenor 2004) It is impossible to remind indifferent when the author describes his rage and says he even â€Å"contemplated killing some of his teachers and classmates with a firearm†. Such statement seems to be used ironically and his infuriating energy has now changed. It is necessary to suggest that Villasenor is one of the first to raise the problem of cultural discrimination so openly and bold. Actually, teachers in both public and private schools, according to the author, practiced violent abuse and brainwashing tactics to intimidate and to discriminate foreign students. (Villasenor 2004) The boy was often treated as â€Å"dirty† Mexican being ugly and unworthy as well. Certainly, boy’s psychological development was upset and the boy has distorted perception of reality. Victor realized that all those characteristics were referred to his family members as well. For example, teachers said his mother was ugly, his father was loud and dirty. As it is mentioned above the boy was often beaten, because his English was poor. Therefore, Victor was forced to be really ashamed of his nationality and heritage. Furthermore, his cultural values and tight-knit family were questioned. Victor’s growing frustration fueled his desire to become a writer and to reveal the truth about racial discrimination in public schools. (Villasenor 2004) Nevertheless, the positive moment of the book is descriptions of constant family love and support, especially the role of father and brother in Victor’s life. The author mentions that it is his father who helped him to eliminate false notions and to move forth. The struggle with Mexican culture is seen throughout the whole book and the boy seems to be proud of his family, whereas he is ashamed of being Mexican. Apparently, Victor considered brown skin as crime. (Villasenor 2004) Communicative bonds with nature and Gods are amplified after death of Victor’s older brother. For example, the boy sees trees, stars and moon as a magical encounter existing between humans and nature. Further, he begins to believe in the supernatural and his intuition is strong. Therefore, it is the main reason why the child’s imagination overwhelms book’s narration. From the very beginning Victor considered himself as a spiritual person being devoted to religion and God. He describes Navajo as â€Å"like perspective on the natural cycle of life and being one with nature†. (Villasenor 2004) â€Å"Burro Genius† makes readers analyze and think of their own childhood, past and present. Furthermore, readers are forced to reflect how words are able to affects psychological development of a person. It is known that ruler- striking teachers don’t exist in the country, although author assumes that racism exists, though its forms had been changed: â€Å"Now teachers are more concerned with how to separate students so that they don’t taint the school’s test scoring system†. (Villasenor 2004) Apparent strength of the book is that the author strongly defends his positions regarding culture and religion. References Victor, Villasenor. (2004). Burro Genius. New York: Rayo.

Chinese Birthdays and Customs for Newborn Babies

Chinese Birthdays and Customs for Newborn Babies Chinese people put their family in a very important position as they regard it as a means to continue the family bloodline. The continuation of the family bloodline maintains the life of the whole nation. That is why reproduction and family planning in China truly becomes a focus of all members of families it is, in essence, an essential moral duty. There is a Chinese saying that of all who lack filial piety, the worst is who has no children. Traditions Surrounding Pregnancy and Childbirth The fact that Chinese people pay great attention to beginning and growing a family can be supported by many customary practices. Many traditional customs about the reproduction of children are all based on the idea of protecting the child. When a wife is found to be pregnant, people will say she has happiness, and all her family members will be overjoyed. Throughout the whole period of pregnancy, both she and the fetus are well attended, so that the new generation is born both physically and mentally healthy. To keep the fetus healthy, the expectant mother is offered sufficient nutritious foods and  traditional Chinese medicines believed to be beneficial to the fetus. When the baby is born, the mother is required to zuoyuezi or stay in bed for a month in order to recover from childbirth. In this month, she is advised to not even go outdoors. Cold, wind, pollution and tiredness are all said to exert a bad effect on her health and thus her later life. Choosing the Right Name A good name for a child is considered equally important. The Chinese think a name will somehow determine the future of the child. Therefore, all possible factors must be taken into account when naming a newborn. Traditionally, two parts of a name are essential the family name or last name, and a character showing the generation order of the family. Another character in the first name is chosen as the namer pleases. The generation signing characters in the names are usually given by the forefathers, who chose them from a line of a poem or found their own and put them in the genealogy for their descendants to use. For this reason, it is possible to know the relationships between the family relatives by just looking at their names. Eight Characters Another custom is to find the newborn babys Eight Characters (in four pairs, indicating the year, month, day and hour of a persons birth, each pair consisting of one Heavenly Stem and one Earthly Branch, formerly used in fortune-telling) and the element in the Eight Characters. It is traditionally believed in China that the world is made up of five principal elements: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. A persons name is to include an element that he lacks in his Eight Characters. If he lacks water, for example, then his name is supposed to contain a word like river, lake, tide, sea, stream, rain, or any word associating with water. If he lacks metal, then he is to be given a word like gold, silver, iron, or steel. The Number of Strokes of a Name Some people even believe that the number of strokes of a name has a lot to do with the owners fate. So when they name a child, the number of strokes of the name is taken into account. Some parents prefer to use a character from an eminent persons name, hoping that their child inherits that persons nobility and greatness. Characters with noble and encouraging connotations are also among the first choices. Some parents inject their own wishes into their childrens names. When they want to have a boy, they may name their girl Zhaodi meaning expecting a brother. The One-Month Celebration The first important event for the newborn baby is the  one-month celebration. In Buddhist or Taoist families, on the morning of the babys 30th day of life, sacrifices are offered to the gods so that the gods will protect the baby in his subsequent life. Ancestors are also virtually informed of the arrival of the new member in the family. According to the customs, relatives and friends receive gifts from the childs parents. Types of gifts vary from place to place, but eggs dyed red are usually a must both in town and the countryside. Red eggs are chosen as gifts probably because they are the symbol of the changing process of life and their round shape is the symbol of a harmonious and happy life. They are made red because red color is a sign of happiness in Chinese culture. Besides eggs, food like cakes, chickens, and hams are often used as gifts. As people do in the Spring Festival, gifts given are always in an even number. During the celebration, relatives and friends of the family will also return some presents. The presents include those which the child may use, like foods, daily materials, gold or silver wares. But the most common  is money wrapped in a piece of red paper. Grandparents usually give their grandchild a gold or silver gift to show their deep love for the child. In the evening, the childs parents give a rich feast at home or a restaurant to the guests at the celebration.